ACG 2021, Introduction to Financial Accounting, Fall 2000, Exam 1 :: UFL Florida Business Accounting

VERSION APage 1ACG 2021CEXAM 1FALL 2000NAME _____________________________________ SS ____________________________InstructionsNOW Bubble in your section number on your Scan Sheet.Fill in your name and social pledge number on this examination and your skitter sheet.1. Listen carefully for any comments your proctor may beat related to the exam. Read these instructionscarefully. Failure to do so may result in your losing points.2. This exam consists of 50 multiple-choice questions. Select the BEST answer and mark the appropriatespace on the scan sheet with a 2 pencil only. You MUST keep your scan sheet face down on the deskwhen you are not filling it in.3. You may use ONLY a non-programmable calculator during the exam. Use of any other calculator pull up stakes beconsidered a violation of the honor code. Your exam will be taken from you and you will receive a gradeof 0.4. At the end of 2 hours, you will be told to stop. Put your pencils down IMMEDIATELY. Failure to do sowill result in your receiving a zero for the exam.5. The exam consists of 13 pages, including this cover, and a blank page at the end. Make sure you have allpages and all questions.6. Have your University of Florida Identification card ready to be checked when you turn in your exam.7. Assume the accounting entities use a schedule year unless otherwise noted.8. Assume a 360-day year.9. When you are finished, turn in your scan sheet, as well as your exam. Answers will be posted on the webafter the exams are handed back in class.10. The University of Florida policy on academic honesty will be strictly enforced.When you are told to blossom forth your exam, turn to the firstpage and find your exam code. Immediately bubble thisin on your scantron.VERSION APage 21. As of declination 31, Mesa Company has a balance of $5,000 in accounts receivable of which $500 ismore than 30 days overdue. Mesa has a credit balance of $45 in the allowance for doubtful accounts.Mesa estimates its bad debts losses at 1 % of modern accounts and 10% of accounts over thirty days.What adjustment should Mesa define to the allowance for doubtful accounts?A) $95 (credit).B) $55 (credit).C) $50 (credit).D) None, the current balance is correct.E) None of the above is correct.2. A businesss balance sheet cannot be used to accurately predict what the business might be sold forbecauseA) it identifies all the revenues and expenses of the business.B) assets are generally listed on the balance sheet at their historical cost, not their current value.

Eleutherodactylus (Greenhouse Frogs) :: essays research papers

Eleutherodactylus p. planirostris, or more commonly the Greenhouse salientian, is from the Leptodactylidae family. They were unintentionally introduced to Florida around 1875. Their numbers racket have continued to grow and they are now very common among South Florida with change magnitude inhabitants around the panhandle. Greenhouse frogs have a reddish-brown port with either dark blotches or 2 dark stripes down their backs. They are comparatively small in size usually growing to virtually an inch to and inch and a half in length. Often, the greenhouse frog is confused with cricket frogs (genus Acris). However, this type of frog has webbing between their toes which the greenhouse frog lacks. As their name describes, the greenhouse frog lives in greenhouses or lawns. They prefer a dampish environment with a relatively high humidity station which may be why they have flourished in Florida. Greenhouse frogs are a mundane species as well as being nocturnal. They feed on other small invertebrates such as insects, spiders, and snails. Naturally occurring in certain Caribbean Is backgrounds such as Cuba, the Cayman Islands, and the Bahamas these frogs may have been brought to Florida by importing tropical plants from these areas. They dwell underneath leaf litter and can go undetected. A common quality that distinguishes this type of frog from others is that they lay their eggs on land rather than in water. This is due to the fact that the greenhouse frog does not go done the tadpole stage. The infant frog is merely a smaller version on its parents. Some major problems that this species of frog has caused in the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem complicate uncontrollable density, over-consumption of prey, and a negative effect on aboriginal birds and snakes. Greenhouse frogs consume approximately 45,000 prey items per acre per night (16 million per year). This over-consumption of prey is having detrimental make of the small invertebrate population. Spiders, snakes, and snails are being consumed far windy than they are being reproduced causing a gradual extinction of these species. This also has an effect on native birds and snakes. If the greenhouse frogs consume all of the small invertebrates in a specific area they will slowly starve other animals that feed on the same prey.Eleutherodactylus (Greenhouse Frogs) essays research papersEleutherodactylus p. planirostris, or more commonly the Greenhouse frog, is from the Leptodactylidae family. They were unintentionally introduced to Florida around 1875. Their numbers have continued to grow and they are now very common among South Florida with increasing inhabitants around the panhandle. Greenhouse frogs have a reddish-brown appearance with either dark blotches or 2 dark stripes down their backs. They are relatively small in size usually growing to about an inch to and inch and a half in length. Often, the greenhouse frog is confused with cricket frogs (genus Acris). However, this type of fro g has webbing between their toes which the greenhouse frog lacks. As their name describes, the greenhouse frog lives in greenhouses or lawns. They prefer a moist environment with a relatively high humidity rate which may be why they have flourished in Florida. Greenhouse frogs are a terrestrial species as well as being nocturnal. They feed on other small invertebrates such as insects, spiders, and snails. Naturally occurring in certain Caribbean Islands such as Cuba, the Cayman Islands, and the Bahamas these frogs may have been brought to Florida by importing tropical plants from these areas. They dwell underneath leaf litter and can go undetected. A common trait that distinguishes this type of frog from others is that they lay their eggs on land rather than in water. This is due to the fact that the greenhouse frog does not go through the tadpole stage. The infant frog is merely a smaller version on its parents. Some major problems that this species of frog has caused in the Gulf o f Mexico ecosystem include uncontrollable density, over-consumption of prey, and a negative effect on native birds and snakes. Greenhouse frogs consume approximately 45,000 prey items per acre per night (16 million per year). This over-consumption of prey is having detrimental effects of the small invertebrate population. Spiders, snakes, and snails are being consumed far faster than they are being reproduced causing a gradual extinction of these species. This also has an effect on native birds and snakes. If the greenhouse frogs consume all of the small invertebrates in a specific area they will slowly starve other animals that feed on the same prey.

Chinas growing economy :: essays papers

After North America, Europe, and Japan, the area of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong is a fourth developing pole in the world stintingal system (Jue 108) which in 1994 was expected to double in size by 2002. Today, the growth rate is still on track to fulfill that prediction. Recent Chinese economic policies have shot the country into the world economy at full speed. As testimony of this, Chinas gross domestic product has rise to seventh in the world, and its economy is growing at over nine percent per year (econ-gen 1). Starting in 1979, the Chinese have implemented numerous economic and political tactics to open the Chinese marketplace to the rest of the world. Chinese reform measures even anticipated the rush of foreign investment by opening newly expanded industries to out-of-country investors. As trade expands glob bothy and countries within geographical proximity and of similar cultural descent and philosophies ally themselves in pose to better compete on a world level, w e are seeing the development of increasing number of geographical trade alliances, whatever the underlying reasons base each. The alliances that have been in place for a while are proving to be very successful in competing in the international markets, stimulating the economies of nearly all of their member states. Effects of this change in economic strategy by a world power can be felt by lots every nation of the globe involved in international trade. The change in the amount of imports and exports to and from China will increase the demand on absolute markets. Also, with all the foreign investment China is receiving, the socialistic republic will only grow more and more interdependent upon the world economy. However, the impressive growth rate of Chinas economy is not without its shortcomings. Problems such as inflation and inefficient state-owned enterprises plague the rise of the Chinese economy. When China opened its economic borders 19 years ago, environmentalists spoke of the efficiency of their farming systems and how they used hardly any organic fuels in the production of food for their people relative to somewhat of the other countries of the world-most notably the United States. What they neglected to mention, however, that one farmer at the end of one rake struggling to feed his family kept fuel habit very low indeed. It was not, by any stretch, efficient.

Sigmund Freud: His Life And His Work Essay -- essays research papers

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6th 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia, which is now in Czech Republic. He is the eldest of eight children born to Jacob and Amalie Freud. Because of the anti-semetic riots who were ragging in Freiberg , Freuds father, who was a wool merchant, lost his business and the whole family had to move to Leipzig (1859) and shortly subsequently to capital of Austria where Freud spend most of his life. When he lived in Vienna, Freud had, once more, to come accross anti-semetism jewish people had been persecuted in Europe for hundreds of years and they would often be attacked on the streets or called names. Freud was a very intelligent and hard travelings student, but when he left school, he was not certain(predicate) of what he wanted to do. At first, he decided to become a lawyer. Then, he decided to study medicine and to become a doctor, for this reason, he enrolled in the medical school of the University of Vienna (1873) and he often came top of the class. To the eyes of Freud, working hard and wanting to find out about things were the two most important qualities in life. In his 3rd year at the University, he started a reasearch work on the central nervous system in a phisiological laboratory under the deputation of Ernst Wilhelm von Brucke. During this period of reasearch, Freud neglected his courses and as a result, he remained in medical school 3 years longer than it was normally required to qualify a physician. He received his medical degree in 1881 .He spend three years working at the General Hospital of Vienna - working successively to psychatry, dermatology and to nervous diseases -. In the year 1885, he is given a government grant enabling him to spent 19 weeks in Paris to work with French neurologist Jean Charcot - director of the mental hospital, The Salpetriere - who tried to understand and treat nervous disorders, and most especially hysteria. Charcot used hypnosis to prove that the real hassle of his patients was a mental one . From this demonstration, Freud realised the power that the mind had on the body, and he came back from Paris, determined to make a name for himself in this new arena of study. When he came back from Paris, Freud immediately married his sisters friend Martha Bernays. At first, the other doctors laughed at him and noboby baught his books. He was therefore very poor and in addition, he had a growing family to support. His only friend, Wi... ...pose of having a child with him. At this stage, the mother becomes the object of rivalry and jealousy. For the girls, the castration complex comes first ( in emulation to the boys case ) and then they desire to kill the mother and marry the father and have a baby. If for the boys the castration complex ends the Oedipus complex, and creates the unconscious and the superego, what devolves with the girls ? Freud says that the oedipal cathexis in girls whitethorn be repressed or abandonned. The result is that women never really create a very st rong superego. He is also not quite sure of how womens unconscious is formed, since they do not have the castration anxiety as the motive to repress their incestuous wishes, some sort of repression might happen but Freud is not entirely clear on how it happens.Freud succeeded in finding clear solutions for many human problems with the help of psychoanalysis he demonstrated the origination of the unconscious and created a totally new approach to the understanding of a persons personality. Although he was never accorded full recognition during his lifetime, today, Freud is acknowledged as one of the most important thinkers of the twentieth century.

The Tempest: Allegorical to the Bible Essay examples -- English Litera

The Tempest Allegorical to the BibleThe Tempest is non a pure fantasy tale, but a purposeful allegory. The characters in the play are all representative of characters found in the bible. The first, and perhaps most persuasive, arguement would be Prospero symbolizing God. Prospero is seen to be a representative of God for several reasons. First, he is obviously in control of the actions and has an omnipotent quality. This has been demonstrated by several scenes throughout the play. Consider the power that Prospero possesses, as shown in the Epilogue at the closing of the play I have bedimmed The mooontide sun, called by the mutinous winds, And twixt the green sea and the azured vault Set roaring war. . . . The strong-based promontory Have I made shake, and by the spurs plucked up The pine and cedar. Graves, at my command, Have waked their sleepers, oped and let them forth By my so potent art (V. i. 41-4, 46-50). These are obviously superhuman works. In fact, Prospero claims quite d efinitely that he possesses the power of mighty Zeus himself, for non only does he say that he can make lightning, but he declares that he has actually used the gods own thunderbolt (Still 6) To the dread rale thunder Have I given fire, and rifted Joves stout oak With his own bolt. Having already established that Prospero is the possessor of superhuman power, why would Shakespeare include this information pull out solely for alligorical purposes (Still 7)? This information serves no purpose except to establish Prospero as a god. Prospero is also seen in the play performing several roles that Christianity traditionally fix to God that of the Omnipotent Judge and the Savior of Man. Prospero is revealed to be the Omnipotent Judge through a speech given by Ariel (Still 7) . . . . I and my fellows Are ministers of Fate. . . . The powers, delaying, not forgetting, have Incensed the seas and shores, yea, all the creatures Against your peace. . . and do pronounce by me Lingering perditi on, worse than any death Can be at one, shall step by step attend You and your ways whose wraths to guard you from, Which here, in the most desolate isle, else falls Upon your heads, is nothing, but hearts sorrow, And a clear life ensuing. Shakespeare tells us, through Ariel, that Prospero can devote sentance of lingering perdition, but whose mercy can be ga... ...he exile from the garden of Eden legend in the Bible. Both involve two characters who are tempted with owing(p) power and knowlege by an evil being--Satan. Both are successfully tempted by the evil foce both eventually suffer for their choices. The Tempest, by William Shakespeare, is a rattling interesting and entertaining story when viewed by its face value. However, when one analyzes the characters, settings, and situations, one realizes the deeper meaning intended by Shakespeare in composing the drama. Through his creation of the island microcosm, which is control by Prospero and undermined by Caliban, the Bard cr eates a masterful work which glorifies a merciful God, who will forgive sins through repentance. In The Tempest, Shakespeare creates a story that is valuable for more than just entertainment purposes--he creates a work of art. Works Cited Still, Colin. Shakespeares Mystery Play A Study of The Tempest. Cecil Palmer, 1921. Knight, Wilson G. The Crown of Life Essays in Interpretation of Shakespeares Final Plays. Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1947. Leech, Clifford. Shakespeares Tragedies and Other Studies in Seventeenth Century Drama. Chatto and Windus, 1950.

The Tempest: Allegorical to the Bible Essay examples -- English Litera

The Tempest Allegorical to the BibleThe Tempest is not a pure fantasy tale, but a purposeful allegory. The characters in the tactical maneuver be all representative of characters found in the bible. The first, and perhaps most persuasive, arguement would be Prospero symbolizing God. Prospero is seen to be a representative of God for several reasons. First, he is manifestly in control of the actions and has an omnipotent quality. This has been demonstrated by several scenes byout the play. Consider the power that Prospero possesses, as shown in the Epilogue at the closing of the play I have bedimmed The mooontide sun, called forth the mutinous winds, And twixt the green sea and the azured vault Set roaring war. . . . The strong-based promontory Have I made shake, and by the spurs plucked up The pine and cedar. Graves, at my command, Have waked their sleepers, oped and let them forth By my so potent art (V. i. 41-4, 46-50). These are obviously superhuman works. In fact, Prospero cl aims quite definitely that he possesses the power of mighty Zeus himself, for not only does he say that he can make lightning, but he declares that he has actually used the gods own thunderbolt (Still 6) To the dread rattling thunder Have I given fire, and rifted Joves stout oak With his own bolt. Having already established that Prospero is the possessor of superhuman power, why would Shakespeare include this information except solely for alligorical purposes (Still 7)? This information serves no purpose except to establish Prospero as a god. Prospero is also seen in the play performing several roles that Christianity traditionally assign to God that of the Omnipotent Judge and the Savior of Man. Prospero is revealed to be the Omnipotent Judge through a speech given by Ariel (Still 7) . . . . I and my fellows Are ministers of Fate. . . . The powers, delaying, not forgetting, have Incensed the seas and shores, yea, all the creatures Against your peace. . . and do pronounce by me Ling ering perdition, worsened than any death Can be at one, shall step by step attend You and your ways whose wraths to guard you from, Which here, in the most desolate isle, else travel Upon your heads, is nothing, but hearts sorrow, And a clear life ensuing. Shakespeare tells us, through Ariel, that Prospero can pass sentance of lingering perdition, but whose mercy can be ga... ...he exile from the garden of paradise story in the Bible. Both involve two characters who are tempted with great power and knowlege by an mephistophelean being--Satan. Both are successfully tempted by the evil foce both eventually suffer for their choices. The Tempest, by William Shakespeare, is a very interesting and entertaining story when viewed by its face value. However, when one analyzes the characters, settings, and situations, one realizes the deeper message intended by Shakespeare in composing the drama. Through his creation of the island microcosm, which is ruled by Prospero and undermined by C aliban, the Bard creates a masterful work which glorifies a tender God, who will forgive sins through repentance. In The Tempest, Shakespeare creates a story that is valuable for more than just entertainment purposes--he creates a work of art. Works Cited Still, Colin. Shakespeares brain-teaser Play A Study of The Tempest. Cecil Palmer, 1921. Knight, Wilson G. The Crown of Life Essays in Interpretation of Shakespeares Final Plays. Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1947. Leech, Clifford. Shakespeares Tragedies and Other Studies in Seventeenth Century Drama. Chatto and Windus, 1950.

Evaluate how personal learning and development may benefit others Essay

?Evaluate how person(prenominal) education and development may benefit others Personal development is very significant as this builds and helps individuals to progress to their goals, the individual can do this by working to their full potential and as well as set themselves achievable targets that they can achieve by using their potential. Personal and professional development is about the way the individual progresses and develops in a personal professional way. In all move an employer examines this by the employee manger to know and see how she or he has developed in a professional way.An Individual whos in their last course of hold of college can do this unit personal and professional development. This is good unit as it helps the individual to identify their strengths and weakness and it also helps to improve theses weaknesses. If an individual is non yet aware of their strengths and weakness they will struggle to set themselves goals and achieve what they can to their full potential. An example of this is that in this unit, the individual brass at some things such as shapes on their studies, performance action plan, researching about theorists like Kolb learning cycle.Also Honey and Mumford and figuring out what type of learner the individual is, for example reflector, activist, pragmatists and theorists. They are a lot of things which can puzzle out individuals personal and professional development. Examples of this are role models, motivation, experiences in the past, time management, be after and setting goals. An individual develops in different ways as comes across different personal learning experiences. The first and the major trance is motivation . This influence individuals personal and professional development. Motivation is what drives someone to do something.It is the underlying reason for why people do what they do. A famous summons from zig ziglar of course is not permanent but then, neither is bathing, but is something you s hould do on regular basis. This quote by American write whos believes that motivation doesnt last long but to succeed in life an individual needs to be motivated and keep it their head word at regular basis in order to do well. Past experiences are second influence which may affect individuals personal and professional development. Past experience is experience which has occurred in past in individual life.This can from time to time stop an individual from personal learning and professional development. Every individual has got a past experience that may affect them from doing their full potential and from time to time this may be an obstacle. In phycology a study which was done which I will explain is Pavlov (Classical conditiontioning). What Pavlov found out that there is a human behaviour is learnt through different involuntary responses and many stimulus for example unconditioned stimulus unconditional response, conditioned response and conditioned stimulus.An individual will use their past experience by using classical conditioning. For example an individual has been purpose it tough find a job and this is since they havent got any qualification as they did not detract education serous. At later(a) stage of their individual has learnt is that in order to get good job. They will go back to college and try their trump out to achieve a good that they can get the qualifications which they need. I am now going to apply classical conditioning, Unconditional response Is the individual is finding it difficult to get a job because they dont have no qualification.Unconditioned stimulus The conditioned response is because they never took secondary take aim and college serious they are suffering the consequence because they are unable to find a job. Conditioned response The conditioned response is she is going to back to college and take it serious. Conditioned stimulus The conditioned stimulus is this individual will remember every time what has happened to them in the past when they havent taken The influence that I will looking at which affects individuals personal learning development is role models.Role model is somebody who an individual look up to or someone that has inspired an individuals in their life. When an individual has role models they can great effect on an individual personal learning and development because people look up to others and do what they doing. For example a when a student has no interest for their college. But what this individual has that other individuals are doing their work and less stress. This individual may change in a very positive way by realising what other students are doing role models.An American psychologist had done a study which describes the social learning theory which as observational learning. He explained his theory by putting a giant bobo doll in a manner with a fry and an adult. During the experiment the adult would violently punch the bob doll, once the adult stop hitting the doll he realised that the tike in the same room as the adult would do the same t thing as the adult done to the bobo doll. This is observational learning and this is because the child witnessed a negative behaviour form seeing the adult.This psychologist has shown that do look at role models Time management is also a great influence on personal learning and development of other individuals. This is because everyone tracks the time in order to do most things work and college, work even sleeping this is pass water example which that most things in life, if not all are timed. For example drake a Canada artist said Better late than never, but never late is better. This quote reflects the important of time keeping life.

Philippine Literature Essay

Multilingualism became one of the key factors why unity cannot be thoroughly assessed in a specific country. It became the basis here in our country that having many dictions implies a rich culture, diverse culture but carries with it the brand that content unity might be gener whollyy impossible due(p) to regionalistic factors.Our country experienced so many shifts in language policy. Colonizers from Spain and America became the key contributors for it to happen. Looking back on the time of Spanish regime. Not all people can speak Spanish so the Spaniards made serious efforts to use Spanish to teach and speak it and make it as a national language. During that time, increasing number of tagalong users were growing. Slowly, it established the title as one of the major local language and until now, was strengthened and included as part of the schooltime curriculum.To counter the growing number of Filipinos using other impertinent languages, local literatures emerged to battle out the western culture. Filipinos during that time made use of their local language that is commonly spoken on that specific place and then use this language to write literary pieces like poets, production of drama and sometimes as a form of entertainment during fiestas, other writers create a play using the foreign language emphasizing how it is awkward to speak the foreign language using ridicule included in the play.Though Filipinos made serious efforts to preserve the culture, some are slowly being converted to use the foreign language, and that approach is in the form of a religion. During the Spanish regime, it became a must to use Spanish as a medium of speaking while intimate the church. And many people was moved that if they will not do church work, they will not go to heaven, they became a panatiko without realizing that religion Roman Catholicism became the modal value for the Spaniards totally colonize the culture and imply the Spanish culture.

Curriculum Development Essay

Education is an essential economic factor for breeding by eradicating illiteracy. Region, where the curriculum developed should hand positive influence on education but not have any negative effect on apparitional beliefs, by inclusion of tenets that govern religion. The second part of the paper disc intents the development of new curriculum macrocosms, the processes followed, how it can be implemented, and the difficulties encountered during the instruction execution of the program.The abbreviation is centered on the executing of the social sphere curriculum to students and how their teachers should use it. Introduction The impact of the education system is important for diversity to be realized. The primary generate is to change designed curriculums to offer relevance to the educational program set in place. The educational curriculum is very important, especially when it comes to the stimulation of the singles personality and enabling optimum functioning of schools an d education systems inwardly governments.The design innovation focuses on the school education which consists of primary and secondary schools (Markee, 1997). The study of interactive vocabularys and subjects is beneficial to students since it improves on their communicative ability and social relations (Marcos, 1998). The aim of the curriculum is to alter the students learn with a stack of ease and have the ability to comprehend and solve problems adequately. as tumesce as there atomic number 18 few valuable advices to the teachers on how they can wrap up students their students effectively based on the quality learnings that they nettle (Marcos, 1998).The educational curriculum has proven to be a powerful base of knowledge for any nation to advance. It bids effective methods to accomplish educational policies with a lot of integration, by employing the new technologies. Its innovation is highly complex and requires further research and investigation (Fullan, 1993). Th ere has been insufficient information on the curriculum process carrying out. This has allowed the situation where the innovators dictate teachers on the use of their innovations.It is common for curriculum innovations to change with little noticeable impact on the classroom work and much so in the fieldwork practical (Morris, 1992). slickness bring Protocol The rationale ensures organization of programs to cater for cultural, financial, religious and social requirements. English linguistic communication was a perfect selection in case1 to determine what influence it result have on Moslem religion. Compared to TOC which guarantees that teachers get supported and trained support in classrooms is needed for the implementation of the goal-oriented curriculum to be successful (Carless, 1997).Descriptive Account- Case 1 structural education system is composed of kindergarten, primary school years are six, intermediate lead years and high school three years as strong. Language sub jects play key role in curriculum structuring since vocabulary skills have a greater influence on valet social character. English language is among the most advanced languages and with highest speakers all over the world as an international language (Marcos, 1998).Purpose of studying foreign language enhances ability to communicate and even open up avenues of employment (Marcos, 1998). English language curriculum was introduced at intermediate stage with aim of enabling students write, read, and listen. At the end of the vocational study, students would have gained enough skills in English for possible advancement at secondary level in future. The main objective in Arabian casebook was driving at enabling student interact with members of English speaking community.In contrast breeding English would advance Islamic religion by facilitating students to preach its doctrines and discredit any false thoughts from Islamic religious enemies. Another aim through the book is to enable stu dent senior pilot command of English for purposes of advanced applications in certain situations, consequently the students be find it easy to express their ideas coherently and for fun and enjoyments (Carless, 1997). Book Content It was sub-dived into 2 sections. Section one was to be covered in semester one while semester 2 takes the second section.Eight units are in each section, and per unit are four lessons for reading, listening, and writing and extra one for oral and listening The main topics covered in the book are interesting ones to boost student tending like Friendship, travel, others relates to the cultural traditions of Saudi Arabia and other diverse culture. In addition, the book has wonderful drawings, pictures and scenes that apply key striking new English words in sentences and phase of exercises (Carless, 1997).Benefits of learning English Learning a second foreign language at intermediate school had primary optimism since the teaching process has manufacture easier and cheaper. The textbook design is flexible to be used in classrooms in varied formats for communication. This includes discussion of answers in small groups, development of individual skills through usage exercises on reading, writing and oral. The book has targeted certain learning outcomes.In contrast to the tail end Oriented Curriculum whereby the primary school is allocated seven lessons per week and is sub-divided into two sessions the morning and the evening session though the evening session operates freely (Lynch, 1996) Learners aged between 6 and 7 years old have a problem with the new languageEnglish which is being introduced to them as they try to put it into practice.Practically as they try to put up with the new curriculum they seem to have their own plan that govern them on the choices they make over what they are told due to the language problem and difference in twain writing and pronouncing. The pupils are besides involved in the communication and inqu iring with the elements of reasoning and solving the problems involved in recognition of their members of their families in pictures (Lynch, 1996). The teachers attitude obtained is as a result of their own past knowledge as pupils, their leadership, teaching practice, interaction with coworkers and their rates and customs of the society within which they work (Waugh and Punch, 1987) The, main aim of TOC is following the daybreak guide session rather than through a positive desire to introduce the curriculum was the goal for the implementation.Also TOC is aiming at visual perception the learners communicate through sharing and receiving logical implication , inquiring through curiosity , testing theory, blueprint identification and thoughts through organizing knowledge, reasoning through reasonable descent and pretentious or intrusive conclusions, solving problems including ,recognizing, assessing solutions and explaining. Also teachers should take to account the learners needs an d interests (Clark et al. , 1994, p. 15) Another objective is that attention should be paid more to individual learning requirements of different learners for variations , in their learning styles, abilities and speed be looked into. Also there should be insightful capacity and desire for self development, positive orientation course and good taste towards the implemented curriculum.Proficiency and high standard of the English language, wide range of pupil-centered teaching techniques and also the ability for facilitation of effective learning outcomes Carless (1998). Teachers in Hong Kong insist on the communication of information and acquaintance therefore, they use the informative mode which is believed to be medium-largeger because of all the limitations of communal examinations and reluctance of teachers to change. Therefore the Target Oriented Curriculum represents a fundamental change of the teachers in Hong Kong accustomed to carrying out traditional arisees since the fo cus is on task based learning and more individualized learning styles (Carless, 1997).The limitations encountered during the process of implementation imply that there is lack of information on the curriculum implementation process and this is observed in response from the learners, the strategies used during the process, how the teachers go about putting in place the innovation to their own circumstance and also the speed and interest of the learners in adjusting to the new learning curriculum (Morris, 1992, 1995). Principles According to case 1, the main reason for acquiring the secondary language is for morale boosting and desire to excel. Subsequently, the language improves the students cognitive abilities and adds knowledge of socio-cultural lifestyles of the foreign community. In contrast to the Target Oriented Curriculum, English language teaching can be compared to a weak form of the based task approach where by the tasks tend to be attuned with the stage of production of c reation sequence , performance, charge, which are the regularly used in expansive methods (Wong,1996, p. 92). PART 2Designing an groundbreaking curriculum from a familiar context An overview of how the principles from the case studies reviewed might be applied to my curriculum innovation. The good training is of prime importance since this is required for the buddy-buddy understanding of the curriculum in place. Their understanding of both(prenominal) the theoretical underpinnings and classroom applications will ensure that the appropriate knowledge is delivered to the students. The dissemination of this innovation must digest sufficient information in vagabond to simplify its understanding amongst the teachers. This will be achieved through generation of classroom teaching procedures for the innovation inform of syllabuses.Criterion-referenced judging is to be used for assessing the pupils progress in class towards the targets and this will enable information to be recorded a nd reported to the schools administration as well as the parents. This will provide an integrated curriculum framework link between teaching, learning and assessment (Elsevier Science, 1998).. The learning of the subject through different text books will help in providing the students with modify knowledge on the very subject. The pupils are encouraged to undertake educational trips as this will enable them to socialize with people of diversified origins hence improving on their social nature and this whitethorn make it easier for them to interact freely during their later years and also in every part of the world as a whole(Elsevier Science, 1998).. Description of the contextThe curriculum provides sufficient information on the culture of social studies, both practical and theoretical aspects that are necessary for the better understanding of the students. The strategies that are used during the implementation of new topics and the students reactions described. This paper will br ing in a thorough review on the factors necessary for the implementation of social sciences as a subject in the schools. A number of key elements that helps in the process of innovation are discussed in relation to the social studies. The study sought to explore the importance realised in the implementation of new in advance(p) curriculum within the schools. This is done through the multiple case study research design based on the social sciences impacts.The discussions will mostly focuses on the students reactions and how well and fast they can adjust to the changes available (Elsevier Science, 1998). Rationale for the innovation This innovation will aim at providing a better understanding for the students at an early age to the environment and how they should interact and associate with other components without much coercion. It will be aimed at how the attitudes of most of the learners can be captured and changed to accept some form of social changes that takes place within ther e localities. When students attitudes agree with this innovation the much success is likely to be realised, especially when it comes to the reduction of the human conflicts within most of the societies (Waugh and Punch, 1987).It will also ensure that much organization is realised especially in the public settings where educative functions are held, because the population will have known prior how to carry themselves responsibly, hence no much resistance to change. This approach will enable the development of understanding of the phenomenon from the students point of view (Waugh and Punch, 1987). A description and justification of the content, materials and methodology to be adopt The training and thorough teachings will therefore be stressed and much emphasis placed upon it in order to ensure effective transfer of knowledge. The content will involve a lot of textbooks reading and practical interactions with different social backgrounds to promote diversified knowledge and thinking. This also ensures easy dissemination of the innovation.The information will collected from at least twenty schools from different social regions and both student and teachers sampled agree to the classes they represent. This will enable information to be obtained from a number of sources and over a period of time. The students are the key elements of focus in this study and how they interact. The methods adopted comprised of practical, observations, measurement of attitude scales and interviews. The communicative methodologies are well incorporated to emphasise on the transmission of information and knowledge. An indication of the resources (people, facilities, equipment, and materials) required to implement the curriculum.For the purposes of implementation it requires well trained teachers, well equipped schools and diversity in the students background. The students differences are catered for by the involving language interpreters so as to eliminate the issue of language barrie r. A number of issues have been developed to help oneself new language development (Ellis, 1998). The learning units within the set curriculum will serve as good facilitators in the learning process. The development and progress will mainly be based on how the schools invest in their pupils and this will form the al-Qaida under which the potential for the future generation will be uprooted from.The supportiveness of the government in providing the finances and the leaning aides is an added advantage to the initiative (Ellis, 1998). The proactive interest group of the college and university students is encouraged to facilitate the fruitful implementation of this innovation since it provides enriched base of intentional people. Anticipated difficulties that may be encountered in implementing it and how these might be addressed. One of the stumbling issues is the hypothesis of changing the attitudes and the traditional beliefs of most of the students and the teachers (Kennedy & Ken nedy, 1996). For the efficient implementation of the innovation, crucial training and support which requires modern equipments might be a challenge.Those without the modern training may loose enthusiasm towards the implementation of the curriculum, since they become thwarted by the problems posed and hence revert to older implementation methods which might not work (Gross et al. , 1971). The implementation will require both classroom and off classroom work which requires psychological and academic support from the innovation trainers. This will require a lot of finances and time. The students and teachers understanding of the innovation may pose some problems on the start of the program. This may require thorough information on the issues that concerns the particular innovation. The training needs to be more developmental and informative (Brindley and Hood, 1990).Insufficient support and training on the teachers, their enthusiasm about the innovation may be frustrated by implementin g the problems which will turn against the project and hence go back to the old ways of teaching (Gross et al. , 1971) another(prenominal) difficulty will be the approach of the teachers towards the TOC and also teaching the language. Also the teachers familiarity with the TOC principles, to the extent that they believe that they are performing whether they are implementing the TOC principles and the strategies used . Also the nature of change and development in the teachers during the study period (Lynch 1996). The unwillingness of teachers to change from the didactic mode in Hong Kong is hard due to the familiarization of teachers to the traditional approach (Carless, 1997). Difference in both writing and pronouncing is another challenge.In order for the curriculum to succeed, their must be implementation therefore teachers require adjusting to the content of the training to their own levels of knowledge and experience. Teachers also need to get access to the local and lasting ope ration training probably through the cascading material, an establishment of effective supervision and support system for the teachers. Teachers encouragement on trueness and motivation for instance through professional development opportunities and improved working conditions Verspoor (1989). For the second language development, participation should be rich in instructions because the language will serve as the intermediate as well as the center of instructions.Also the here and now principle need to be adhered to center that there will be a lot of concentration needed therefore in the action stage pupils will have independent management over the content comparative meaning that they will have a choice over what is said even though there is a big information gap between the listener and the speaker. Students also have to adapt participation into intake Ellis (1988). Attention to different learners for learning styles, abilities and speed variations as well as their learning requi rements of different learners. Also there should be insightful capacity and desire for self to develop, positive orientation and good understanding towards the implementation Carless (1998).A detailed plan for evaluating both the curriculum and its outcomes. For the evaluation of the curriculum and its principal outcomes the study is conducted within different schools. This is very necessary in order to reap maximum results, and also ascertain the desired effects on the students. Very valuable concepts on the learning environment of the students will be find out and the programme accountability identified. This will be based on different types of evaluation which include formative evaluation, Summative evaluation and illuminative evaluation (Hitti, 2004). Formative evaluation concerns with the process of developing and designing of the social science curriculum.This is so as to ascertain on its effectiveness to deliver the core principles (Hitti, 2004). Illuminative evaluation loo ks into the assessment, functioning and implementation of the different sections and units of the program and this ensures competent learning processes is employed. Summative evaluation is mostly used by those who are involved in planning process identifying the significance of every bit of the curriculum implemented. This evaluation is done by the use of qualitative and quantitative analysis (Hitti, 2004). The three main conceptual elements making up the curriculum will be followed to the latter. These elements are targets, tasks and task-based assessment.The targets provide a common direction for the learning processes for all the institutions. It also helps in the facilitation of the planning and evaluation processes. Tasks provide the purpose for which the curriculum is meant and the context of the learning activities to wards the targets. The assessments are used to asses the progress of the students and enable report to be written and recorded to the relevant parties. The comp arison to be done with other case studies which will enable information collected from the other sources be correlated to the quality of the innovation. This will enable development of understanding from the trainers point of view.More attention to be paid on the individual learning needs of students so as to be able to cater for the variety of needs of the pupils and their abilities. The classroom info will be collected in order to evaluate on the students improvement after the introduction of the new innovation. The fieldwork data is also availed to determine how well the students have adjusted to their social life-style. The students will actively be involved in their own learning and in the development of new knowledge and ideas. This is done through the interactive ways of learning, communication by sharing meaning, inquiring of clarifications through questions and tests of the hypotheses.Conceptualizing through organizing knowledge and identifying important groups. searing r easoning and coming up with conclusions and ability to identify problems solve them and justify the inferences (Fullan, 1991). The quantity of the comprehension to which the students are being exposed together with the techniques used to facilitate students understanding, is of prime importance. It has been identified that acquisition is the most favourable way to better a students understanding. The understanding of the principles and practise of the curriculum innovation evolves over time as the teachers continue to gain further experiences through it (Fullan, 1991).Having a strong staff who are well equipped with instructional leadership skills, will help in building of collaborative cultures, academic, administrative and resource support means of facilitating the change required (Hall&Hord, 1987). Conclusion The study of the social sciences enables the government to develop an understanding, informative and knowledgeable population. This will in turn be very critical especially in the implementation of projects in the various parts of the country. The understanding of different ethnic backgrounds promotes free interactions and peaceful environments. It also facilitates in building good international society.The job environments especially companies will have easy time in traffic with their employees since they have the ability to understand one another. This study will enable various groups to remove the prejudices that certain people from common background are atrocious and not worth staying with. It will also equip the people with good learning skills necessary to earn living within any locality in the whole world. This paper has finally tried to show that good trainings are beneficial especially when it comes to the implementation of new curriculum to learning institutions. Despite the umpteen challenges associated with the implementation of the new innovation, both students and teachers gave positive responses based on their understanding of the imp ortance of the innovation.The gradual change indicated in the curriculum framework offers some tractableness and development of teachers and students in most regions. This is because the implementation comes with the changes in the teaching format and timing for each lesson taught. It also offers the teachers the opportunity of countering inertia and legitimising attempts to improve on how they handle the students. Reference A Sociological Analysis of Planned Educational Change (1996). Harper Row, New York. Carless, D. ,(1997). Managing systematic curriculum change a critical analysis of Hong Kongs target-oriented curriculum initiative. International Review of Education 43 (4), 349-396. Carless, D. , (1998). Quality teaching an expert primary practitioners classroom behaviors and attitudes.Paper presented at a conference on Quality Education, Chinese University of Hong Kong. Clark, J. ,Scarino, A. , Brownell, J. , (1994). Improving the quality of learning a framework For target ori ented curriculum renewal in Hong Kong. Institute of Language in Education, Hong Kong. Ellis, R. , (1988). Classroom Second Language Development. Prentice Hall, London. Gross,N. , Giacquinta,J. Bernstein, M. , 1971. Implementation Organizational Innovations Hitti, M. , (2004). Being Bilingual Boosts Brain Power. Retrieved on 15th Augest 2008, from. http//www. webmd. com/parenting/ intelligence service/20041013/being-bilingual-boosts-brain- power Lynch, B. , (1996).Language Program Evaluation Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Marcos, K. M. (1998) Second language learning Everyone can benefit. The ERIC Review, 6 (1), 2-5. Morris, P. , (1992). Curriculum development in Hong Kong. Education papers 7, Faculty of Education, Hong Kong University, Hong Kong. Morris, P. , (1995). The Hong Kong school Curriculum. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. Verspoor,A. , (1989). Pathways to change Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries. World Bank, Wash ington DC. Waugh, R. , Punch, K. , (1987). Teacher receptivity to system wide change in the Implementation stage. Review of Education Research 57 (3), 237-254.

Physical Activity at School Is Important Essay

Physical activity is important in many various ways. Aim for 30 minutes of physical activity a day on most days of the week. Your activity can be spread out through the day. Try for 10 minutes at a time, but dismantle a few minutes counts. A big fountain physical activity important is having strong bones. Another big reason is having a healthier heart and lungs. Another reason physical activity is important is because everybody needs a lot of energy. All three of these reasons are important in our general lives. My first reason is you get stronger bones. Having stronger bones is one of the primary(prenominal) reasons of physical activity and its importance.A personal experience that has happened to me is that my uncle never exercised and got osteoporosis. Exercising just a few minutes for each one day will gain you stronger bones. Every minute counts. Want muscles? Exercise at least 30 minutes each day for a long period of time I guarantee you results. My second reason is havin g a healthier heart and lungs. This is also one of the main reasons of physical activity and its importance. A personal experience Ive gone through is that my grandpa died from chronic disease. Try keeping your heart and lungs extremely healthy. cancel heart disease and acute disease.Nobody likes that. Live a long and healthier life. My third and final reason is having more energy. More energy end-to-end the day is magnificent. A personal experience that Ive gone through is having no energy. Exercising allows more energy to flow through your body and be more enthusiastic during the day. In conclusion I believe physical is important in various ways. One reason is because you maintain stronger bones. Another reason is because you get a healthier heart and lungs. And the last reason is you get more energy. This content has shown most of the important reasons of why physical activity is important.

Antigone as an Epitome of Female Heroism in Ancient Greeks Essay

It is believed among ancient Greeks that women argon seemly to remain at plate and not out of the confines of their fellowships and men should devote themselves to the outdoor pursuits. Otherwise, the opposite of this convention will be considered disgraceful. This illustrates that it is a commonplace in ancient capital of Greece and in domainy weaken of the ancient Greece that female citizens argon excluded from participation in public affairs. However, there is also a commonplace exception to this, that is, women produce a full participation in the religious practices in all levels during the time such as participating in religious rituals.As a issue of fact, the female has the same status as that of men in the religious arena. For authority, the role of priestess was the only public office open to women because there is a belief that women hand close intimate connections to divine women. However, despite this, women are still debarred entirely from political and public deba te (Blundell et al. , 1998). According to Friedrich Jacobs in his evidence entitled The History of the Female Sex, womens position in Greece were regarded as demeaned with characteristics that are associated and similar to that of the barbarians.It is also interpreted and believed that housewives are little esteemed and love except that of the hetaeras. This group of females enjoys a high status in the society because of their opportunity to education (Katz,1995). However, for the close to part, ordinary women that are secluded and uneducated were regarded in contempt. They are considered as not free and not equal to their male counterparts. Jacobs argues that this is because of the restrictions to home and domestic aliveness was a consumption among the Greeks.This is attested in Thucydides, which says that we have limited evidence on womens education primarily because they are silenced. It is believed that young girls education was for the most(prenominal) part entrusted to th eir m new(prenominal)s. This education would also be qualified to instructions in the domestic arts and charly wisdom. Furthermore, this so called education will then be continued by the husband. In this sense, Jacobs insists that the ancient Greeks womans intelligence and moral sensibility is for the most part developed to be the object of the husbands contempt.For instance, in the poems of Homer, it is revealed that he intended it that women were regarded as little and secluded (Katz, 1995). Moreover, accordingly there have been several positions Greek women have in the eyes of men. Majority of the scholars think that women is seen by men as a species of slavery. The women were regarded as lower order of universes. When compared to men, they are neglected both in intellectual and emotional capacity. The woman as already reiterated is also incapable(p) of pursuing a public endeavor.They are also considered as pr ane to doing and influencing evil doings and thoughts reason why th ey should be kept in the house. The obligation of the wife is the management of the entire household, and the nurturing of children. The only roles that they have are to propagate the species by reproduction and gratifying the desires and sensual appetites of men. In other words, the only order of women during that time was equal to that of a faithful slave (Katz, 1995). Likewise, in literature and classical Greek theatre, the scenery consists of a building with entrances and exits.The setting of the nobble is primary(prenominal) in making a distinction as to whether the characters were inside or outside the buildings. The stage was a paradigm of the household in the ancient Greeks. Women are supposed to stay inside the building. However, the whole political and city life happened outside. Thus, in the stage alone, the status of women in ancient Greeks is pretty much revealed. sad playwrights dramatized that there are two important principles in drama during the classical age. First, women should remain inside the house and should not speak in public.For instance, Aeschylus had authorized the office of Thebes to command that the affairs outside the domestic sphere were the domain of men and women should be kept inside their houses (Tetlow, 2005). As a matter of fact, in the play Antigone by Aeschylus, there is a scene where Antigone herself was permitted by her mother to watch the battle between her brothers. When she was seen by her old teacher, she was chided because this is considered improper. The teacher contends that Antigone should not be seen by either male citizen because it would certainly result to a scandal.Even when there are no men during that time, the teacher still implored Antigone to get out of the roof. closely especially when he saw groups of women approaching the palace, Antigone should already come down because by the women seeing her there, it would create gossips which are in a sense veto or suppressed among women. This is beca use gossip yields pleasure among them and pleasure is at the same time prohibited for them (Tetlow, 2005). Another example would be that of the stories by Euripides where Agamemnon lamented that a man should keep ones wife inside the house because that is where she is useful and would not get into trouble.If a man cannot do this, he should not marry at all. Also, his little girl Elektra was highly criticized because she goes outside often to talk to men (Tetlow, 2005). These examples illustrate that in literature women are portrayed by ancient playwrights in the sense that it upholds the custom of seclusion among them. In Homers The Iliad, Andromache described herself as a perfect wife for Hector because she keeps her reputation and honor intact by avoiding every behavior that would make people criticize her. As a matter of fact, she does not go out of the house nor let anyone visit her in their house (Tetlow, 2005).Antigone as Defiance to the Position of Women in Ancient Greece An tigone is a play written by Aeschylus as a part of the Thebes tragedy. According to German philosopher Hegel, it is one of the most sublime, and in every respect most consummate, work or art human effort ever produced. The protagonist of the play is Antigone himself, young lady of Oedipus Rex. When Thebes was rule by Creon, the two sons of Oedipus namely Eteocles and Polynices fought with each other during a civil war. They were leading the two opposite sides because of each desire to rule Thebes. However, both of them died in the war.Creon then pertinacious that Eteocles should be buried in an honorable manner. On one hand, Polynices should not be buried and his body should be left in the battle field until it rots. It should be fed to scavengers. This is because he was considered a rebel to Thebes. Every dead person during that time who will not be effrontery a decent burial is considered to be disgrace. Moreover, it is considered up to now by the gods as the most severe puni shment existed (Sophocles, 2003). Antigone and Ismene are the sisters of both warriors. When Antigone found out that his other brothers corpse are left in the battlefield, she decided to bury it herself.She does not want her brother to suffer the disgrace of not cosmos to be accepted by Hades. She implored her other sister Ismene to help her bury their brother only if Ismene was afraid to esuffer the consequences. So Antigone buried Polynices by herself. When Creon knew about this, she commanded that the perpetrator should be brought to him and be punished. When Antigone was apprehended, she did not deny the accusations. Instead she admitted it. She was even willing to accept the punishment of death. However, her sister beseeched Creon that if he is going to kill her sister, she should die with her, too.Antigone in her part pleaded to Creon that Ismene should be spared because she did not help her in the burial of their brother. Creon was unable to decide so he dismissed them for the mean time (Sophocles, 2003). Creon then decided to punish Antigone and spare Ismene. His verdict is to bury her in a cave alive. However, this did not happen without Antigone defending her rights and her actions. In this case, her loyalty to her brother and to her family was one of the most remarkable and noble rationale that she was able to produce. The Chorus expressed their sorrow for her execution but still this did not happen (Sophocles, 2003).A prophet in the name of Tiresias prophesied that Antigone is supported by the gods. The execution would bring about bad fate to Creon and his family. In particular, he would lose one child. The Greeks and the gods will loathe him to the lead that no offerings could ever heal their anger and scorn. The Chorus pleaded Creon to honor the prophesy of Tiresias. He was eventually convinced and decided to spare Antigone of her death (Sophocles, 2003). After this decision, a series of messenger came to inform him that his son Haemon killed himself. In addition to this, Antigone also committed suicide.Furthermore, another messenger came along to inform him that Eurydice, his wife also killed himself. She is blaming and oath him for the death of their son. Creon then started to blame himself for what has happened. He has become very unfortunate that he only had his servants to help him on things. He is still the King but he has lost everything that he values in his life. The lesson that the Chorus emphasized at the end of the play is that the gods will have to punish anyone that has done ravish against them and to their fellow individual.However, despite this, punishment will bring nothing but wisdom to strengthen the character of those who are punished (Sophocles, 2003). The most notable part of the play would be the character of Antigone. She rebels against the law of the state by performing funeral rites for her dead brother. When King Creon declared that he will not be given up a decent burial because he has been a traitor to the kingdom, she still pursued the burial. Furthermore, she was even more than willing to face the direst consequences imposed. Even when her sister Ismene implored that they cannot stem against men, she still persisted.Remember we are women,/ were not born to contend with men (Sophocles, 2003). Creon in his part declared that women should not triumph in any delegacy We must defend the men who live by law,/ never let some woman triumph over us (Sophocles, 2003). In this manner, even though Antigone has practiced the traditional roles that are imposed in women during that time such mourning the dead and defending the interest of the family, she is asserting another scene of her personality. In this case, she is asserting herself in a masculine fashion that even threat Creon.As a matter of fact, Creon felt that his own manhood was being attacked and he has already conceded with the strength and esteem of Antigone. Because of this she was condemned to death. Even when h er execution has not happened, she lead a life of a living dead where she was locked up and walled in an underground vault (Blundell, 1995). Moreover, another reassertion of her power would be her suicide. When she was walled and led to live a life of a prisoner, she did not in any way showed weakness to anyone. Aside from facing the consequences of her actions, she was consistently defending herself.This is something that is deviant to what should a woman be and how should a woman act during that period. As a matter of fact, she was successful in defending herself that made Creon difficult to decide on what to do with her. When she was already in control of Creon and the law, she did not let them take her life. She stood up and let them know that she is willing to spare her life for the sake of her loyalty to the brother she loved. She was actually the one who killed herself. This suggests that even when she is under the custody of the law and under the control of Creon, they were not successful in seizing her life away from her.As a matter of fact, aside from the imprisonment, there is no other instance where Creon took control of Antigone. Her suicide is the final bold assertion of her masculinity and her defiance over the norm that women should not in any way stand up against men in the society. This is also a contradiction on the perceived notion that poor boyism is the domain of men. It is noticed that almost all of the Greek milles are men such as Achilles, Odysseus, Hercules, Agamemnon, and Virgil among others. However, Antigones heroism breaks this stereotype.She proved that like just anybody else, a female can actually be a hero and serve a purpose other than reproduction and nurturing. Her heroism is one of the most noble because it was driven by love for the family. Accordingly, her heroism is considered as the noblest, and the most profoundly tender embodiment of a womans heroism which ancient literature can show (qtd. in Gibbons et al. , 2003) . Moreover, she is also considered an exemplar hero who holds her integrity bravely and her spirit in isolation. She towers above all the characters in the play as she shares the harshness and intransigence of any Sophoclean character.Because of her nobility and integrity, she brought a awed suffering to herself but she did not run away from it. She faced all the consequences of her actions boldly and bravely (Gibbons et al. , 2003). In the end, we see Antigone as a dutiful daughter and sister who died for her convictions. Scholars laud her because of her selflessness and grand emotional gesture. She surpassed all kinds of heroism because she do not only acted selflessly towards the sake of her family but also gave up her life for her convictions and her loyalty.Conclusion Women in ancient Greeks are portrayed in roles that are not only demeaning but also impairing to their growth and the realization of their potentials. However, there is always an exception in every case. That wo uld be Antigone. This woman has proven not only to the ancient Greeks but also to the rest of the humans that women can be heroes in themselves. The key point to achieving this would be selfless conviction and will power to give up everythingincluding ones life for the sake of love and loyalty.References Blundell, S. and Williamson, M. (1998). The sacred and the feminine in ancient Greece. Oxford Routledge. Blundell, S. (1995). Women in Ancient Greece. USA Harvard UP. Gibbons, R. and Segal, C. (2003). Antigone. Oxford Oxford UP. Kantz, (1995). Ideology and the status of women. Women in Antiquity New Assessments. Oxford Routledge. Sophocles. (2003). Antigone. Oxford Oxford university Press. Tetlow, E. M. (2005). Women, Crime, and penalisation in Ancient Law and Society Ancient Greece. London Continuum.

Great Power Hegemony

Name Sayed Jamaluddin Firozi, St no 1B1019 Great business office hegemony There is a question that which system (empire, balance of business office, concert of world situation or big(p) power hegemony) provides the best conditions for forward tranquility, prosperity and civilization? There are several opinions about the advantages and disadvantages of each system and the functions, abilities and disabilities of them to maintaining the public security and perceptual constancy in international arena.But I want to argue on hegemonic power system as a preventer of war among states and a maintainer of peace as comparison to opposite suggested types of system for advancing peace, stability and civilization in all over the world. Hegemonic power system is the best system for advancing peace, prosperity and preventing war among states comparing to other types of systems such as empire, balance of power, and concert of power.In this paper I will argue that as floor of international r elations show most wars and conflicts among states occurred in a lack of a hegemonic power because a hegemonic power try to act as a policeman and usurpt let the states to start war. If war happens mostly the super power will enter the war to stop it because the hegemonic power does attend to itself as a policeman to bring on the right to intervene. So, hegemonic power is good for making peace and stability in the world.There are many reasons that great power hegemony system could be the best option for developing peace and preventing the war. It is clear that two world wars happened in the absence of a great hegemonic power. For physical exertion if in the 1910s there was great power hegemony the First World War may did not happen. In addition, hegemonic power system naturally makes its allies and dont want to go just for its birth interest but also look for others as well.In contrast in balance of power each actor in the system try to pursue its national interests and want to increase the power in terms of military or other resources. Furthermore, great power hegemony can be very helpful in cooperation among states, because the hegemonic power bear the most cost of transaction in the system. For example the States as a hegemonic state pays the 22 percent regular expenditure of United Nation and 25 percent of the budget while UN goes for peacekeeping trading operations around the world.On the other hand, the system of balance of power doesnt seem to contribute the cooperation among states but in contrast it pushes the states to go for a emulation and armament race because each state in the system will increase its capabilities to make the balance in the system. Eventually this competition will guide nation state to build its arm forces. However, there are some arguments about the weakness of hegemonic power to prevent states from going to war. They argue that hegemonic power has its own limitations in term of internal and external barriers to go as po liceman around the world.This arguments see very good and logic. But they dont have any proposal that which system could be the best to make the world more peaceful and prosperous. So, despite these points of view the other types of system such as balance of power or concert of power likely arent good replacement for great power hegemony system to be succeeded for making peace and stability in the world. So I will try to give more examples from history of international relations to show the other systems (empire and balance of power or concert of power) couldnt make a lasting and peaceful world.But mostly went to war and there was fear of attack from other region in the era of those systems. In conclusion, there might be some suggestion for advancing peace, prosperity and stability within the system of great power hegemony. References 1. Luard, Evan. The balance of power The System of International Relations, 1648 1815, St. Martins Press, saucily York, 1992. 2. Kennedy, Paul, Th e Rise and Fall of Great Powers, Random House, New York, 1987 3. Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1996. 4. Journal of Peace Research. 5. Brooking Institution Press. 6. The Better World Campaign. 2 . . U. S. Dues and Contributions to the United Nations, The Better World Campaign, http//www. betterworldcampaign. org/issues/funding/us-dues-and-contributions. h tml , 3 . . Journal of peace research, 1964-2007 (Vols. 1-44), http//www. jstor. org/stable/422972? seq=3

Hormones and Dreaming

I Dreamed A Dream We all moon, it is inevitable. You dream about people, places, homework, nonchalant doings, and even things you dont even recognize as existence a part of our life. People may often question the signifi basece of pipe dream or why humans do it, only if it is an essential part for our brain function as you sleep and live day to day. It allows for our minds to process the stimulus it receives. There have been ample researchers who have studied the brain and its relationship with imagine.Most people argon aware of the influence hormones have on the behavior of a person. However, such hormones have also been linked to the dream process and their case. My goal through this research paper is to identify several hormones, naturally secreted by the personate, and the trespass they have on the dreaming process for both males and effeminates, with a particular focus on females. The articles provide evidence as to what specific hormones from the body venture dreami ng and how the hormones enable that to occur. Article 1 Sleep, dreams, and memory consolidationIn this article, Payne and Nadel did not perform any actual experiments themselves they did review the results of a number of different studies pertaining to cortisol and dreams. Researchers foc utilize on the numbers of brain neurohormones, specifically cortisol, as it impacts sleep, dreams, and memory. Researchers believed that variations in amounts of cortisol, as well as other neurotransmitters, affect the hippocampal organisation and neocortical circuits, two move essential for fusing memories, a process which occurs during sleep usually through dreams.It is important to understand that cortisol is released by the adrenal cortex in response to filtrate and low levels of blood glucocorticoid meaning. Researchers of the studies that were reviewed provided background and assumptions for topics concerning sleeping and dreaming such as the sleep stages, the distribution of dreams, and the relationship between dreams, sleep, and memory consolidation. First, sleep does not further serve one purpose for humans.Second, confine of dreams shows which portions of the brain are active. Third, if cortisol levels affect the hippocampal formation then the stages during sleep in which memory consolidation occurs pass on be also altered. In the studies looked at by Payne and Nadel, all findings showed that cortisol levels do fluctuate during a nights sleep based on the sleep stage (REM, NREM, SWS). Some studies also indicated that sleep strengthens communication for the neocortical circuits and hippocampal formation.Many of the same studies continued to point out that the channelizes in cortisol levels interrupt the hippocampal formation function, which is the processing of episodes, and neocortical interactions. The results therefore alter dream content because the two brain parts are closely linked with dreaming during sleep. This dream reprieve comes because the brai n is attempting to integrate the learning with pre-existing knowledge and other related concepts.The findings compiled by Payne and Nadel are examples of biological psychology, which displays the relationship between human behavior, the mind, and biological processes in comparison with the influence of neuroscience and chemical/hormonal reactions, specifically cortisol. Cortisol is kn have got to increase with age because of its role as a stress response hormone. melodic line increases as age increases, therefore the connection between cortisol and dream interruption is also a part of developmental psychology because it is a change that occurs end-to-end a lifespan.These findings are also relatable to a cognitive psychological perspective since the studies investigate the mental process of dreams and how the brain sorts through new information and past information simply stated it is cognitive psychology because it is the brain working as one sleeps. These articles go into depth about the process of dreaming and how it is affect negatively by cortisol. Payne and Nadel also demonstrate social psychology, which is how our behavior is affected by others, in their review.Cortisol can be released by the body as a response to the stress brought about by others meaning that the behavior produced in our dreams is a result of our interactions with those around us. It would not be necessary to running off contact with the world to decrease stress levels and attempt to control amounts of cortisol secreted by the body, but it can help people understand their own dream process through the night. Article 2 The Influence of the Hormonal Cycle on Dream Recall in Women In the dissertation by Phyllis Bales, Bales focuses on the impact of womens hormonal cycle in relationship to dream intensity, vividness, and content.As demonstrated in the first article, hormones can have a pronounced effect on dreams while sleeping because of hormonal influence on the brain. She hypothesiz ed three things first, there would be higher dream activity and recall during the luteal phase, when braggart(a) amounts of progesterone are emitted second, dream intensity would be higher during the luteal phase third, thematic content would co-vary with the hormonal, or menstrual, cycle. Bales performed a study with seven female keep downs who were not taking birth control, since birth control is known to alter hormone balances.These participants kept a Dream Analysis Questionnaire and Menstrual Distress Questionnaire throughout the study, to track the content, intensity, and vividness of their own dreams. The findings from her study supported some of her initial hypotheses. The questionnaires showed that there was no difference in dream activity during the pre- and post-ovulatory phases, however, there was a significant increase in dream recall following the post-ovulatory phase, also known as the luteal phase as mentioned previously.Another influence seen in the luteal phase w as an increase in paternal dreams along with their duration and intensity concerning maternity. These results proved to be consistent as shown through other studies that even used different methodologies. Bales study and dissertation are relatable to individual difference/personality with psychology as the results may vary insignificantly from person to person by extremely small numbers because of interactions with the environment, but will constantly be similar among women as a group, as long as they experience a menstrual cycle and have not entered menopause.An interesting perspective to reach is evolutionary psychology because of its inclusion of behavioral differences among individuals in response to changing bodily and social environments. Women may experience such differences in dreams as part of variations between males and females. Through history, females have been the ones to bear children, never men, as told in the bible, but there is the chance that the body may have undergone experiences that have altered the body in turn altering the mind, including dreams.Article 3 Menstrual hormone changes and instinctual tendencies in dreams In this paper by Judith Baron, Baron investigates whether the female sex hormone, progesterone, contributes to the content of dreams. Her main hypothesis was the themes of dreams are more likely to contain agnatic content when progesterone levels are high in the post-ovulatory or luteal phase. As part of the study included in the paper, seventeen female college students completed dream questionnaires for every dream remembered over two menstrual cycles.Then, scales were created to measure obvious and symbolic dream content. Menstrual cycles were divided into follicular, without progesterone, and luteal, with progesterone, phases for comparison within each subject of dream content. Conclusions taken from this study showed that there were higher obvious and symbolic maternal scores in the luteal phase. It was concluded t hat hormones do influence maternal instinctual tendencies as expressed in dreams and supported Barons beginning hypothesis concerning dream content in relation to progesterone levels.Again, this study plunk for the hypothesis that hormones do affect dream content. These findings suggest two things first, hormones do impact the content of dreams second, specifically progesterone has been linked to increase the maternal content in females dreams. This study is relatable to cognitive psychology because it is strongly tied with internal mental processes as the hormones influence the dreams females have and remember, even what they may learn from these dreams.Barons results are also representative of a biological perspective since it focuses on the biological foundations in relation with behavior and mental processes, including dreams. Progesterone released by the body affects the behavior that occurs in dreams for women. Conclusion People dream each night because it is our brains way o f processing new experiences and information for our brain. Dreaming can be fun as it pertains to enjoyable events, like reliving a date or time with a loved one, or it can be terrifying as through nightmares, where our worst fears seem real.I have experienced both ends of the dream content spectrum as I have dreamt about a cute guy or even about death. Looking back at the findings in these articles, I am better able to understand the linguistic context in which these dreams happened and rationalize the occurrence I experienced. As a female, this research brings to light the even greater differences that are seen by scientist between men and women. We already have different physical features and behaviors which are linked to the dreams we experience.These physical features and behaviors are typically tied with hormones like testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol, the same hormones that affect dream processing, content, and vividness. With ovulation, the findings of increased mater nal dreams in a sleeping pattern can also help women understand the reasoning behind why they are experiencing more dreams about being a mother. Some people may question the importance of such information concerning hormones and their effects on dreams, but it is important to note that many of our bodies hormones are released without real control over them.They are a response to outside stimuli or other impacts from our environment. With this research, we are able to answer two rather customary questions as to what our dreams may mean or why we had the dreams we did. Take the time to evaluate the environment around you, whether it is ovulation, stress, or even pregnancy. One thing to consider the next time you dream are the hormones your body may be producing and how they may be affecting your dreams. So next time you recall a dream, just ask is a dream really a wish your heart makes?

Dead Man Walking Summary

A DEAD MAN paseo Matthew Poncelet is sentenced to death for the murder of Walter Delacroix and Hope Percy. He has been closely followed by Sister Helen Prejean who is strongly against capital punishment, and today, we be to follow him for his last day. 1500 He meets his family for the last time, and he talks with them like nothing has ever so happened. They laugh together and talk about everyday things, but they are also looking stern on the past. Its humbling to see a man who will be dead in a few hours talking with his family without showing signs of anger. Some people are asking about your funeral nd I get real angry and I say, Hes not dead yet, hes convey says. The mood dampens, and you can feel the emptiness in the room. The only sound left to hear is the screechy from Troys shoes. Its 1845 and the prison guards tell Matthews family to leave. They give him hes possessions which he tells him family to take, except for his boots he wants to die with them. It is hours befor e he is going to be killed, and he grub his last meal like it didnt matter. Ive never had shrimps before, he says, shoveling them down. Moments before his death, he in the long run shows how he declivity, for the first time.THE LAST WORDS He is lead to the execution chamber by several(prenominal) police guards. Dead man walking one of them says. They wouldnt let him wear his boots, and it was clearly humiliate for him to have to walk to his own death in that way. They tie him to the chair, and insert the needle. He tells the parents of his victims that he regrets what he has done. He asks for forgiveness. They watch him with a cold and still face, showing no reactions to his manner of speaking. And finally, the last words I just wanna say I think killin is wrong, no matter who does it, whether its me or yall or your government.

Emilio Jacinto’s Trading Cooperative

A1457 joints Principles and pulls in the 21st coulomb Kimberly A. Zeuli and Robert Cropp ABOUT THE COVER flick The twin pines is a familiar symbol for joints in the get together States. The reconciling League of the USA, which correcttu tout ensemble(a)y became the subject argona accommodating Business Association (NCBA), adopted it as their logo in 1922. The pine tree is an past symbol of endurance and immortality. The two pines represent mutual cooperation heap helping people. COOPERATIVES ii Chapter 1 An mental home to joints 1 Chapter 2 historic phylogenesis of concerteds through pop the foundation 5Chapter 3 Cooperative history, trends, and laws in the join States 59 Chapter 8 Procedures for organizing a conjunctive 69 Chapter 9 A summary of concerted bene concords and limitations 77 Notes 81 Glossary 85 Cooperative resources IN 49 Chapter 7 Cooperative financial counsel PRACTICES 39 Chapter 6 Cooperative roles, responsibilities, and communication & 27 Chapte r 5 Alternative condescension models in the join States PRINCIPLES 15 Chapter 4 Cooperative rowification Contents Publication nones ? 89 THE 21ST light speed i Publication notes This topic is the fourth and most extensive revision of the Marvin A.Schaars text, Cooperatives, Principles and Practices, University of Wisconsin ExtensionMadison, Publication A1457, July 1980. What has come to be cognise simply as the Schaars book, was origin wholey indite in 1936 by Chris L. Christensen, Asher Hobson, Henry Bakken, R. K. Froker, and Marvin Schaars, all might in the Department of inelegant Economics, University of WisconsinMadison. Since its first publication, the Schaars book has served as a basic reference for concerted sections and leaders, accommodative instructors and phylogeny specialists, and students of concerteds throughout the linkedStates and world. It has been translated into several languages. Although the Schaars book has been out of print for near time, the University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives (UWCC) continues to take on regular requests for copies. Its straightforward, basic in stoolation on the prescribement activity, structure, financing, and concern of cooperatives is as needed and relevant today as ever. The revisions in this version, which reflect over two decades of learning about cooperative development as good as cutting cooperative laws and ways of doing course, will hopefully make it even to a greater extent useful.Although we centralise on cooperative coursees in the joined States, and draw most of our references from the unsophisticated sector, most of the books content is pertinent to cooperatives anywhere, in any sector. Readers argon encouraged to seek out otherwise publications that vie much extensively with cooperative laws in their own states and countries, and tin more itemed in forgeation on consumer, service and worker-owned cooperatives and confidence unions. ii Kimberly Zeuli and Robe rt Cropp, Assistant professor and Professor Emeritus in the Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of WisconsinMadison, re responsible for all of the editing and most of the revised text. The following individuals likewise contri furthered to unhomogeneous chapters David Erickson, Director of Member Relations, Wisconsin Federation of Cooperatives E. G. Nadeau, Director of Research, Planning and Development, Cooperative Development Services David Trechter, Professor, University of Wisconsin River Falls Richard Vilstrup, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of WisconsinMadison This revision would not have been executable without generous funding from The CooperativeFoundation, Inver Grove Heights, Minnesota. COOPERATIVES CHAPTER 1 ? An introduction to cooperatives According to the International Co-operative totallyiance (ICA) a cooperative is an autonomous acquaintance of persons united voluntar ily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically check offled enterprise. Cooperative leaders well-nigh the world earn the ICA, a non-governmental organization with over 230 piece organAlthough the word cooperaizations from over 100 countries, as a leading tive tummy be applied to many uthority on cooperative commentary and values. 2 different types of base activities, in this publication The ICA definition recognizes the essential the term is used to reference element of cooperatives fragmentship is voluntary. Coercion is the antithesis of cooperation. Persons a pro forma teleph unmatchable circuit model, compelled to act contrary to their wishes are not which has comparatively recent origins. The earliest coopera- truly cooperating. genuine cooperation with others arises from a belief in mutual help it evoket be tive associations were cleard in atomic fig 63 and North dictated. In authentic coope ratives, persons join The first signs ofAmerica during the 17th and voluntarily and have the freedom to barricade the coop nonionized hunting eighteenth centuries. These associ- erative at any time. 3 The forced collectives prevaactivity based around lent in the former Soviet Union, for example, were ations were precursors to communities are associated with not true cooperatives. cooperatives. The pi angiotensin converting enzymeers Homo erectus, of the Rochdale Society in Another wide accepted cooperative definition is recent human 19th-century England are ancestors who perishd the one adopted by the united States Department mingled with 500,000 and celebrated for launching the f Agriculture (USDA) in 1987 A cooperative is a 1. 5 jillion years ago modern cooperative user-owned, user- retainled barter that distributes in Africa. front end. The unique conbenefits on the basis of use. This definition captures tribution of proto(prenominal) cooperative organizers in what are g enerally considered the three primary England was codifying a command set of principles cooperative principles user self-command, user and instigating the creation of spic-and-span laws that control, and relative distribution of benefits. helped nurture cooperative commercial enterprise development. The user-owner principle implies that the peopleToday, cooperatives are found in n beforehand(predicate) all countries. Chapters 2 and 3 trace the infrequent history who use the cooperative (members) help finance the coof cooperative development internationally and in op and therefore, own the cage. Members are responsible for providing at least both(prenominal) of the the United States. cooperatives capital. The candor capital contribution of each member should be in equate proportion to that members use ( scorn) of the coop. This shared financing acquires joint ownership The cooperative model has been adapted to (part of the ICA cooperative definition). numerous and varied ancestryes.In 1942 Ivan G roups of individuals around the world and throughout time have worked together in pursuit of common goals. Examples of cooperation, or collective action, can be traced back to our prehistoric predecessors who recognized the advantages of hunting, gathering, and sustentation in groups rather than on their own. What is a cooperative? Emelianoff, a respected cooperative scholar, remarked that the diversity of cooperatives is turnable and their variability is literally infinite. 1 As a consequence of this diversity, no universally accepted definition of a cooperative exists.Two definitions, however, are commonly used. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The user-control concept means that members of the cage govern the line of descent directly by voting on significant and long-term business decisions and indirectly through their representatives on the board of directors. Cooperative statutes and bylaws usually dictate that only active co-op members (those who use t he co-op) can sound voting directors, although non-members sometimes serve on boards in a non-voting, advisory THE 21ST CENTURY 1 capacity. Advisory directors are becoming more common in large hoidenish cooperatives in theUnited States, where colonial financial and business operations require the expertise of financial and industry experts. Only co-op members can vote to elect their board of directors and on other cooperative actions. Voting rights are generally fasten to membership statususually one-member, one-voteand not to the level of investment in or patronage of the cooperative. Cooperative law in a number of states in the United States and in other countries, however, overly permits proportional voting. Instead of one vote per member, voting rights are based on the volume of business the member transacted he previous year with the cooperative. Generally, however, there is also a maximum number of votes any member whitethorn cast to prevent control by a minority of membe rs. For example, a grain cooperative might permit one vote to be cast for each 1,000 bushels of grain marketed the year before, but any single member would be limited to a maximum of ten votes. Democratic control is maintained by tying voting rights to patronage. Equitable voting rights, or democratic control (as written in the ICA definition), are a hallmark of cooperatives. Distribution of benefits on the basis of use, escribes the principle of proportionality, another rouge foundation for cooperatives. Members should share the benefits, costs, and risks of doing business in equal proportion to their patronage. The proportional basis is fair, easily explained (transparent), and unaccompanied feasible from an operational standpoint. To do otherwise distorts the individual contributions of members and diminishes their incentives to join and patronize the cooperative. 2 Co-op benefits whitethorn include advance prices for goods and services, improved services, and dependable sourc es of inputs and markets for outputs. Most ooperatives also realize annual net profits, all or part of which are returned to members in proportion to their patronage (thus, they are aptly called patronage refunds). Cooperatives can also return a portion of their profits as dividends on investment. In the United States, however, national and most state statutes set an 8 per centum maximum on annual dividend payments. The purpose of these limits is to fix that the benefits of a cooperative accrue to those who use it most rather than to those who may have the most invested the sizeableness of capital is subordinated. Today, some co-op leaders and scholars consider his dividend restriction arbitrary and harmful to cooperatives. From their perspective, the 8 percent maximum makes investing in cooperatives less attractive than investing in other forms of business. It makes cooperatives less warring as comfortably, especially in the agrarian processing sector, which requires a lot of capital for start-up and growth. An overview of the federal laws that govern cooperatives in the United States is included in chapter 3. Why cooperate? People who organize and belong to cooperatives do so for a variety of economic, social, and even political reasons.Cooperating with others has often proven to be a fine way of achieving ones own objectives while at the same time assisting others in achieving theirs. Farmers create farm supply and market cooperatives to help them maximize their net profits. This requires both effective marketing of their products for better prices as well as keeping input costs as low as possible. The grangers recognize that they are usually more efficient and knowledgeable as producers than as marketers or purchasers. By change and buying in larger volumes they can also usually achieve better prices. COOPERATIVES CHAPTEREmployees organize talk terms associations and proletariat unions to negotiate collectively with management and owners. In so me cases, employees form worker-owned cooperatives. As the name suggests, a worker-owned cooperative is owned and controlled by its employees. 4 Employees establish bargaining units and cooperatives in the hopes of increasing their wages and eruption benefits, improving their general working conditions, and ensuring job security. Cooperatives do not, as is sometimes assumed, contradict the goals of capitalism. If that were the case, cooperatives would not come crosswise such(prenominal) an important role in the American saving.About 48,000 cooperatives, operating in n first every business sector imaginable, serve 120 million members, or roughly 4 out of 10 Americans. 5 The top 100 cooperatives in the United States, ranked by revenue, individually generated at least $346 million in revenue during 2002 and in the aggregate, $119 billion. 6 They represent agriculture, finance, grocery, hardware, healthcare, recreation, and energy industries (figure 1. 1). An introduction to cooperat ives Consumer cooperatives are established to cheat on the products a group of consumers want but cannot find elsewhere at affordable prices. The consumer embers are earlier interested in improving their purchasing powerthe measuring of goods and services they can buy with their income. They course wish to get as much as possible for their money in terms of quantity and quality. As owners, the members have a say in what products their stores carry. 1 ? Cooperatives are especially important to agriculture. In 2002, 3,140 agricultural cooperatives provided roughly 3. 1 million farmers (many farmers are members of more than one cooperative) with agricultural marketing, farm supplies, and other farm-related services. They captured 28 percent of the market share. Figure 1. 1. Top 100 revenue generating cooperatives in the U. S. by sector, 2002 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY 3 In terms of non-agricultural cooperatives, 84 million Americans are members of 9,569 credit unions , 865 electric automobile co-ops serve 37 million people in 47 states, over 1. 5 million families live in housing cooperatives, and over 3 million people are members of 5,000 food cooperatives. 8 The intricacy of so many people in cooperatives in such a naughtyly competitive economy reflects the general satisfaction of members toward their companies and the apparent efficiency and solid inancial performance of these businesses. Chapter 4 provides a more super handling of the various types of cooperatives and the extent of their economic success in the United States. In short, cooperatives are unionised to serve member needs and are focused on generating member benefits rather than returns to investors. This member-driven orientation makes them essentially different from other corporations. Additional cooperative structural characteristics and guiding principles further distinguish them from other business models. In most countries, the cooperative model represents only one of several ifferent ways a business can choose to level-headedly organize. Chapter 5 presents a comparison of the six major alternative business models in the United States. Cooperative management and development To prosper, cooperatives must be well organized, well financed, well managed, and governed well by a committed membership. They must be progressive, adapting to ever-changing business climates, and responsive to their members changing needs. Members, the board of directors, and management each have responsibilities within the cooperative. Strong, viable cooperatives require all three groups to do their share.Chapter 6 describes each groups unique and important role. 4 Although capital, employees, business volume, and good management practices are all very important for made operations, a co-ops members are its most important asset. Cooperative success also hinges on effective member education and communication. Indeed, providing education, training, and information to member s is one of the seven cooperative principles adopted by the ICA. The unique education needs of cooperatives and the essential elements for a flourishing education and communication program are also discussed in chapter 6.Cooperative financing is also critical and in todays complex cooperative organizations it can be quite complicated. Adequate capital is one of the fundamental principles of sound business operation and at the same time one of the biggest challenges facing cooperatives today. pay options must be consistent with principles of cooperation as well as with federal and state laws. Chapter 7 lays out the main concepts behind cooperative financing, including alternative sources of capital and equity redemption inventions. As with other business forms, cooperatives should be established only to meet a well-defined need in he market. forwards cooperatives are created, advance research should be done by a steering committee to promise sufficient support by other potential members in the community. Chapter 8 discusses in greater detail the procedure for organizing cooperatives. A good feasibility study, strong membership drives, and a comprehensive business plan are essential ingredients. A final analysis of the cooperative models benefits and limitations, to members and the broader community, is presented in chapter 9. COOPERATIVES CHAPTER revolutionist roots in England The first cooperative businesses created in atomic number 63 rose during periods of great social convulsion and distress caused by dramatic shifts in agricultural and industrial mathematical product practices. Prior to the industrial innovation (about 1750-1850), most families in England and other p humanities of Europe were largely self-sufficient, creating enough food and goods for their subsistence and dwarfish steps for trading. The Industrial Revolution introduced the elementy system of production and was marked by a rapid succession of remarkable inventions that accelera ted the industrialization of business. Examples of inventions during this period include smelting iron with coal instead of charcoal, the otton gin and power loom, and the move engine. The writings of Adam Smith at the time, especially his advocacy of the laissez faire principle (no government intervention in the economy), further spurred the revolution. The industrial system gradually replaced cottage industries and home-based production. Workers were required to move into cities to find work. Away from land, their families were more and more integrated into a market economy instead of pro- PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN ducing most of their household requirements, especially food, they had no other choice but to purchase them. Advances in production were not, nfortunately, accompanied by fair dig standards. Workers were typically paid very low wages and were subjected to harsh working conditions. 10 People be in sylvan areas were not much better off. An agricultural revolution was already well afoot(predicate) in the 18th century. The introduction of untried cultivation methods and crop varieties supported a dramatic change in land tenure patterns. Scattered, nonaged plots of farmland were aggregated into large, enclosed estates, primarily for the purpose of pasture sheep and other live- The historical development of cooperative businesses cannot be undo from the social and conomic forces that shaped them. Co-ops then, as now, were created in times and places of economic stress and social upheaval. 9 stock. Between 1760 and 1843, nearly seven million acres of agricultural land in England were enclosed in estates. As a result, large numbers of menial farmers were driven from their land into neighboring towns and villages with few remaining jobs. A thrust towards greater freedom of formulation was another hallmark of this revolutionary period. The citizens of England began to publicly dissent with government policies, taking issue with the status quo and demanding more personal ights. in that respectfore, the widespread poverty, unemployment, and general social deterioration that were left in the wake of the industrial and agricultural revolutions were met with a public outcry to the government for improved working and living conditions. THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world T he historical development of cooperative businesses cannot be disconnected from the social and economic forces that shaped them. Co-ops then, as now, were created in times and places of economic stress and social upheaval. 9 Ancient records and archeological discoveries oint to the existence of cooperative organizations created by early civilizations in diverse parts of the world (China, Greece, Egypt, etc. ). But it is the founders of the Rochdale Society in 19th century England who are celebrated for launching the modern cooperative exploit. The Rochdale pioneers, and the early European cooperative seeers and org anizers who situated the foundation for their success, are responsible for codifying a guiding set of principles that helped templet the development of cooperatives across the world. 2 ? 5 Early cooperative societies Robert Owen and In the absence seizure of public assistance, the people ofCharles Fourier Europe established various types of self-help organizations. Mutual fire insurance companies Cooperative visionaries existed in London and Paris as early as 1530, although the first highly successful and wellknown example was organized in England in 1696, the Amicable Contributionship. 11 The people of England also created Mutual Aid Societies (they eventually became known as Friendly Societies) that offered financial payments and assistance to members in times of sickness, unemployment, or death. 12 By the mid-18th century many well-established societies were already in operation.They were legalized with the passing of the first Friendly Society Act (also called the Rose Act) in 1793. A number of bills were introduced in the 19th century to encourage Friendly Societies since they lessened the public burden. 13 Workers organized labor unions to bargain with employers for more favorable working conditions and to lobby the government for improved labor legislation. Cooperative or quasi-cooperative industrial businesses were in operation in England by 1760. Most were consumer-controlled organizations focused on flour milling and baking industries. Cooperative orn mills for grinding flour appeared in a number of cities shortly after the turn of the 19th century to cut the cost of flour and prevent meddling by greedy millers. Purchasing cooperatives already existed in most Western European countries by the 18th century. The Weavers Society in Fenwick, Scotland (often referred to as penny capitalists) began to purchase supplies as a group in 1769. 14 The precursors to mutuals and unions were guilds, the associations of merchants, artisans, and craftsmen that date back to Medieval times. Guilds had binding rules for production and business practices.Although guilds were created partially in an attempt to establish local trade monopolies, they incorporated socialist practices member control, equitable treatment of all members, and financial support of members who were ill or faced family crises. 6 Often men wish to pretermit the realities of life, and when they do, they dream of Utopias. 15 The first cooperative performance, that is, the establishment of a coherent argument for the cooperative form of organization, gained momentum in the early 19th century with the writings and advocacy efforts of Robert Robert Owen (1771- Owen and William queen regnant in 858)The receive England and Charles Fourier in of Cooperation. France. Robert Owen and Charles Fourier were both well-known Utopian Socialists not only did they envision ideal societies, they tried to create them in Europe and the United States. 16 Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a promin ent industrialist who began to advocate the establishment of a new type of community to alleviate the poverty and woefulness caused by the Industrial Revolution. Charles Fourier (1772-1837) was a bourgeois, famous cut social philosopher whose plans for self-reliant communities were motivated by the French Revolution and his view hat the working class was being dehumanized and repressed. They both envisioned rural villages composed of farms and small-scale industry, all operated cooperatively by the citizens who would also live together communally. Owen originally conceived of these communities as a solution for unemployment, but later believed (like Fourier) that they were a better alternative to private capitalism and competition, providing self-employment opportunities and other conditions that would provide universal happiness. Fourier called his planned communal cities phalanxes. COOPERATIVES CHAPTER Fourier never found philanthropists willing to fund he creation of a phalanx . After his death, several were attempted in France and more than thirty organized in the United States. 18 The most notable in the United States were Brook Farm, near Cambridge, Massachusetts (1842-1846), and one in Fond du Lac County (now the city of Ripon), Wisconsin (1845-1850). The phalanxes suffered from a conflict between treating everyone equally and rewarding those who provided more capital and labor. The phalanx model, however, influenced the successful kibbutzim in Israel (discussed later). Owen was a visionary idealist, not a realistic cooperative developer.He was not at all interested, therefore, in helping the early consumer cooperatives in EnglandJoint stock retailing is not the Social System which we contemplateand will not form any part of the arrangements in the New Moral World. 19 In 1839 he did not even bother to respond to an urgent request by Charles Howarth to visit Rochdale, England to discuss organizational plans for a new retail cooperative. Owens attack up on individualism, the family, competition, private property, the market economy, and organized religion, alienated many people from cooperation and create condemnation of cooperatives from various religious groups.Even so, Owen is often called the father of cooperation. Despite his failures, Owen continued preaching that cooperative production and living were the best medicines for the ills of society. His advocacy stimulated the creation of cooperative societies, labor exchanges (where handicrafts were traded based on the amount of labor involved in their making), and trade unions. Although most of the organizations he started lasted only a short time, PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN they provided the groundwork for another generation of cooperative development in Europe and North America. William queenA cooperative developer and pragmatist Dr. William King (1786-1865), another social reformer in England, was in many respects more responsible than Robert Owen for spreading the cooperat ive idea and for the actual organization of cooperatives. Although he accepted much of Owens social philosophy, he disagreed on how to reach those goals. King was more realistic about cooperatives, advocating and inspiring the development of consumer cooperatives across England. As a physician, King became interested in improving the welfare of the working people of Brighton, England. He was involved in organizing numerous ocial and educational institutions, including an infants school, a mechanics institute, and a library. Between 1828 and 1830, King published (at his own expense) a small powder magazine called The Cooperator that was widely distributed throughout England. Its 28 issues were a source of inspiration, information, and instruction on cooperation in theory as well as in practice. The magazine advocated a more realistic type of cooperation within reach of the working class. King believed that cooperatives should start small with the original capital supplied by members , a significant deviation from Owen and Fouriers arge-scale operations funded by rich investors. King did not inescapably object to Owens self-sustaining cooperative communities, as long as they were funded with the members own capital and were restricted to Christians. King was a religious fundamentalist who believed that biblical scripture should guide the ethics and operations of cooperatives. He also taught that cooperatives should not pay patronage refunds, but instead reinvest all net profits to increase the scope of their activities and to employ as many members as possible. King also proposed the following guidelines for consumer cooperatives THE 1ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Owen and Fourier were not abstract thinkers they laid out very specific details for their communities. For instance, they believed that the communities should contain 1,000-1,800 people living on a relatively small tract of land. Fourier was more explicit the area should be three square miles. 17 stiff supporters of Owens ideas were willing to finance the creation of such communities. Four were eventually created New Harmony, Indiana (USA) Orbiston, Scotland Ralahine, Ireland and Queenswood, England. All lastly failed. 2 ? 7 1) members should pay cash for all merchandise purchased at the cooperative (2) the co-op should adopt democratic principles of governance and (3) it should publicize the cooperative movement. In addition to the advocacy of Owen and King, the cooperative movement in England was supported by a number of short-lived cooperative journals, which were circulated between 1825 and 1830. Cooperative congresses also advocated and promoted cooperation the first took place in 1830 in Manchester, the second in 1831 in Birmingham, and the third in 1832 in London. Owens influence and rhetoric were exhibited in these and later congresses.For instance, the Third Congress stated that the grand final object of all cooperative socie ties is community on land. What began with a few cooperative societies in 1826 speedily grew to about 300 consumer cooperatives by 1830, many patterned after Kings Brighton Cooperative concern Association. Kings ideas may have also influenced early American cooperatives. A treasurer of a cooperative in Brighton, England, William Bryan, helped organize a consumer cooperative in New York City in 1830. King was compelled to discontinue his active role in the cooperative movement in the late 1830s for wo reasons his medical practice was suffering and ridiculous management and internal discontent plagued individual co-op stores. By 1840, the cooperative movement in England was basically at a stand placid and Kings ideas were forgotten, ignored in the cooperative literature for several decades. The Rochdale Pioneers In the first wave of consumer cooperatives, a shortlived society was created in Rochdale, England in 1833. pack Smithies, one of the original organizers, was inspired by Kings cooperative magazine and shared it with his co-founders. Their ultimate cooperative goals, however, echoed Owens teachings.Although their first co-op effort failed after only two years, a aggregate group of 28 continued to work actively for social reform and eventually created the prototype cooperative model for a modest shop on Toad Lane in 1844. The so-called Rochdale Pioneers were would-be(prenominal) and had lofty goals for their co-op (1) to sell provisions at the store (2) to purchase homes for their members (3) to manufacture goods their members needed and (4) to provide employment for their members who were either out of work or poorly paid. In sum, they wanted to establish a self-supporting home colony of united interests nd to arrange the powers of production, distribution, education, and government in the interests of its members. In addition, they hoped to uncivil a temperance hotel in one of the cooperative houses to promote sobriety. The foundation for the Roc hdale cooperative was built upon the knowing combination of various ideas that had been tried by previous cooperatives. The Pioneers learned from the co-op failures of the past. For example, the business practices they adopted for their small store, later called the Rochdale Principles (sidebar), were novel primarily in their combination many had been borrowed rom other cooperatives. The original Rochdale Cooperative shop on Toad Lane. It is now preserved as a museum. 8 COOPERATIVES CHAPTER The Industrial and forethoughtful Societies Act, authorized in England in 1852, was a major development in the cooperative movement. Prior to the portrayal of this law, the Friendly Societies Acts of 1834 and 1846 regulated the registration of cooperatives, even though these acts were designed for mutual-aid groups and not for businesses engaged in trade. Therefore, the consumer cooperatives did not have the proper legal protection essential for their business operations.The acts further preve nted them from selling to people other than their members. 1. Voting is by members on a democratic (one-member, one-vote) basis. 2. Membership is open. 3. Equity is provided by members. 4. Equity ownership share of individual members is limited. 5. Net income is distributed to members as patronage refunds on a cost basis. 6. Dividends on equity capital are limited. 7. Exchange of goods and services at market prices. 8. Duty to educate. 9. Cash trading only. 10. No unusual risk assumption. 11. Political and religious neutrality. 12. Equality in membership (no discrimination y gender). adapted from David Barton,Principles, in David Cobia (ed. ), Cooperatives in Agriculture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall, 1989. Some of the Rochdale Principles, such as democratic control (one-member, one-vote) and limited dividends on equity capital, are still followed by most cooperatives around the world. Other principles, such as cash trading, are clearly outdated in most countries where credit cards and (in agricultural co-ops) seasonal loans are the norm. As a set of guiding principles, they are not necessarily attach for all types of cooperatives in all locations.They are after all a product of a historical period and economy and were meant to govern a small retail store (see chapter 4 for further discussion of cooperative principles). The phenomenal success of the Rochdale cooperative, which is still in operation today, was just the boost that the cooperative movement in England needed. Rochdale became the cooperative beacon for others to follow. It provided the organizational pattern that became the prototype for other cooperatives and spurred on the cooperative movement in Europe and North America. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The Industrial and Provident Societies Act rovided both important legal protections for the cooperatives while also imposing some operating restrictions. It protected the property of the societies, gave binding legal consent for their rules, sa feguarded the savings of their investors, allowed them to sell to non-members, and provided legal status so that an association could sue fraudulent officials. It allowed cooperatives to pay patronage refunds on purchases but limited dividends on shares of stock to five percent. Although members still faced unlimited liability for cooperative debts, share limits of ? 100 per member were enforced.The passage of the Industrial and Provident Societies Act of 1862 loosened some of the restrictions and provided limited liability for members, meaning they would be liable only for co-op debts less than or equal to the value of their stock. Share limits were increased to ? 200 per member and cooperatives were permitted to invest in other cooperatives. As a result of these changes, the organization of the North of England Co-operative Society became possible. Established in 1863 to create cost savings for members by purchasing a variety of goods in bulk, today the Co-operative Group compris es a family of businesses employed n a wide range of activities (food, finance, farms, funerals, etc. ). It is a unique consumer-owned business that is the largest of its kind in the world. THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world The first cooperative law Rochdale cooperative principles 2 ? 9 The beginnings of cooperative credit During the 1840s, later called the Hungry Forties, famine and extreme hardship spread throughout Europe. A blight ruined potato crops in many European countries, although Ireland was the most severely hit, during 1845-47. The shortage of potatoes host up other food prices.Low fishing yields further exacerbated the food shortage, which caused millions of deaths and led to severe economic depression, high unemployment, and political unrest in the character. The Communist Manifesto was published in 1848. During this same year, F. W. Raiffeisen, a city manager of a group of villages in Northern Germany, created a cooperativ e society to alleviate some of the suffering in his community. The cooperative gave potatoes and bread to the poor. He currently realized, however, that charity alone could not solve the problems of poor farmers they needed to become self-sufficient and earn more money. Raiffeisen hen started to organize loan societies, which embraced various cooperative features. Although Raiffeisen continued to advocate self-help, his first societies were mainly efforts to transfer money from the rich to the poor. In 1862, he helped the rural farmers of the little town of Anhausen organize a truly cooperative loan society. Early agricultural marketing and farm supply cooperatives in Europe Denmark is generally regarded as the most outstanding example of early and successful cooperative farm marketing and farm supply organizations. 20 The first cooperative creamery in Denmark was established in 1875 at Kaslunde. The early ooperative creameries incorporated some significant improvements in the butt er-making process, including a similar grading system. The high quality butter was marketed under a government brand to reflect their supervision of the grading. The first cooperative creameries were very successful. News of their success and popularity spread to other rural areas of Denmark many others were soon organized throughout the res publica. These developments took place without government assistance or subsidies. The early and striking success of cooperatives in Denmark can be primarily attributed to the role of the common people spunky School.An institution unique to the country, this school improve young adults in rural areas. The schools were inspired by the philosopher and clergyman, Bishop Nikolai (N. S. F. ) Grundtvig (1783-1873), and popularized by Kristen Meanwhile, Herman Schulze had created a somewhat similar credit institution among artisans Kold, an educator. Grundtvig established the first in Eilenburg in 1850. He further refined this model Folk High Schoo l in 1844 the one created by Kold in 1851, however, was more successful and widely to fit the credit needs of artisans and other smallscale industries and developed other credit organi- replicated.The mission of the schools was to enlighten Danish citizens (beyond what they were zations. Raiffeisen may have been familiar with learning in primary schools) so they could particithese organizations and used them to inform his pate in the governance of the kingdom. They were own co-op development efforts. Both the not meant to be vocational or cooperative training Raiffeisen and Schulze cooperative bank models schools but rather designed to expose students to rapidly spread across Europe. Features of both new ideas and experiences. Today, we would call models were used to form credit unions in North them liberal arts schools.Numerous such schools America. Incidentally, the Credit Union National still thrive in Denmark. Although supported finanAssociations furnish in Madison, Wisconsin w as called Raiffeisen House for a number of years. cially by the state, they are free to set their own curricula and are required to be nonvocational and without examinations. 10 COOPERATIVES CHAPTER Cooperatives around the world The cooperative movement gradually spread around the world in the 19th century (table 2. 1). Another notable cooperative advocate is Sir Horace Plunkett (1854-1932), an Irishman (who spent 10 years as a cattle rancher in the UnitedStates in the 1800s) famous for advocating the benefits of agricultural cooperatives in Ireland and beyond. 21 He was instrumental in creating an international cooperative movement and promoting the cooperative principle of political neutrality. The Irish Cooperative Organization Society (formerly the Irish Agricultural Organization Society), originally founded by Plunkett in 1894, is set(p) in The Plunkett House in Dublin. Today, cooperative businesses are found in nearly all countries, from the growing nations of Africa, Asia, a nd confederation America to the industrial countries of Europe and North America.Northern Europe, where the cooperative movement took hold very early, still contains a strong cooperative presence, especially in agriculture. Many of the cooperatives in these countries have long histories and are extremely successful. However, as is the case in the United States (see chapter 3), economic pressures have been met with cooperative mergers and consolidations. As a result, cooperative numbers in these countries appear quite low (tables 2. 2 and 2. 3). Cooperative numbers in India, even on a per capita basis, are by comparison astounding. In the case of India and other countries with relatively high ooperative numbers, this situation typically reflects the existence of numerous, local cooperatives. More cooperatives do not imply necessarily that the cooperative sector as a whole is stronger or more competitive, however. The spread of the cooperative business model from 18th century England to such diverse countries as India, Korea and Uganda, points to the universal adaptability and diversity of the cooperative model. Cooperative businesses are found in nearly all countries, from the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and South America to the industrial countries of Europe and North America. PRINCIPLES PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Folk High Schools created trained, rural leadership. They also established bonds of trust among those who came to live and study at the schools. The students developed a willingness to think together, work together, and play togetherin short, to cooperate. Although not an intended outcome, the spirit of cooperation produced in these schools has been, without doubt, an important factor in the growth of Denmarks cooperative movement. 2 ? 11 Table 2. 1. Historical cooperative statistics for selected countries CountryFirst co-op First co-op law Membership (% of population) Albania 19 46 NA NA Austria 1794 1873 47. 4 Belgium 1848 1873 35. 4 Czech country 1852 1873 13. 4 Denmark 1851 NA 34. 2 Finland 1870 1901 45. 8 France 1750 1887 30. 1 Germany 1845 1867 27. 9 Greece 1780 1914 9. 9 Iceland 1844 1937 20. 0 Ireland 1859 1893 59. 5 Italy 1806 1886 13. 3 Lithuania 1869 1917 6. 8 Luxembourg 1808 1884 4. 8 Netherlands 1860 1855 41. 1 Norway 1851 1935 36. 4 Poland 1816 1920 NA Portugal 1871 1867 21. 9 Romania 1852 1903 28. 5 Russia 1825 1907 9. 5 Spain 1838 1885 11. 1 Sweden 1850 1895 53. 7 Switzerland 1816 1881 50. 1 Turkey 1863 867 12. 9 United Kingdom 1750 1852 16. 6 United States 1752 1865 56. 7 Yugoslavia 1870 1925 6. 5 NA = not available Source Adapted from Shaffer, J. (1999). Historical dictionary of the cooperative movement. London scarecrow Press, Inc. (pp. 437-39). 12 COOPERATIVES CHAPTER Region Number of countries Organizations Individual members Societies Africa 12 19 27,214 9,561,443 Americas 18 61 43,945 182,486,437 Asia 28 64 480,648 414,383,079 Europe 35 88 197,293 118,473,862 Total 93 232 749,100 724,904,821 Source International Co-operative Alliance, www. coop. org/statistics. html (July 1,1998). Table 2. 3.Agriculture cooperative statistics from select countries Number of co-ops Country Membership (millions) Brazil 4,744 3. 74 Canada 7,880 14. 52 Columbia 1,936 4. 82 Denmark 1,446 1. 39 Egypt 6,992 4. 28 46 1. 07 23,573 17. 49 Finland France Germany 9,112 21. 64 India 446,784 182. 92 Israel 256 0. 03 Japan 3,860 42. 84 NA 0. 63 Morocco 9,635 0. 68 Norway 4,259 1. 59 Repub. Korea 7,669 17. 07 15,106 Historical development of cooperatives throughout the world Table 2. 2. Cooperatives and membership by international region 2 ? 4. 78 Mexico Sweden Switzerland Uganda United Kingdom United States Zambia 16 1. 51 3,131 0. 4 42 9. 04 27,076 156. 19 2,174 0. 57 Source International Co-operative Alliance, www. coop. org/statistics. html (April 26, 2002). PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN THE 21ST CENTURY 13 14 COOPERATIVES CHAPTER The caprici ous forces behind cooperative development in the United States include the following five interrelated kinetics 1. Market failure (monopoly power, excess supply, missing markets, etc. ). 2. Economic crises (depressions and recessions). 3. New technology. 4. Farm organizations and cooperative advocates. 5. prosperous public policy (presidential interest, legislative initiatives at both state and federal evels, and judicial interpretation). The relative immensity of these forces at different periods will become apparent as we trace the path of cooperative development. Since some of the most significant contributions Americans have made to the cooperative model and movement have been in the agricultural sector, farm cooperatives will dominate this discussion. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES IN The first American cooperatives The first recognized cooperative business in the United States (a mutual insurance company) was founded in 1752, almost a quarter-century before the birth of the country (America achieved independence in 1776).Benjamin Franklin, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, worked with other members of fire fighting associations to create the first successful fire insurance company in the colonies The Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. 24 Franklin had already create the Union Fire Company in 1736, which became the model for volunteer fire fighting companies. Franklin had witnessed the success and enormousness of mutual societies when he was living in England. The Philadelphia Contributionship was based on a similar London association created in 1696. 25 Although European models and European immigrant cultures remained influential, it was in agriculture that co-ops began to take root in new and distinctive North American forms. 26 Cooperative history, trends, Cooperative history, trends, and laws in the United States and laws in the United States C ooperatives are neither indigenous to the United States, nor are they an American invention. As Fairbairn reminds us,The idea of the co-op was both imported by the colonists from Europe and also independently developed and adapted by settlers of European origin under North American conditions. 22 Pilgrims coming to he new world on the Mayflower in 1620 signed the Mayflower Compact, which described the operations of an organization, or constitution, with cooperative characteristics. Once they arrived, the early settlers worked together collectively to clear the land, build homes and communities, start farming, and provide protection for their families. 23 The overview of cooperative development in the United States provided here supports the idea that cooperatives in the United States are both an artifact of early settlers European heritage and a collective response to harsh living conditions in rural areas. ? American farmers first attempted to organize in 1785 with the establishment of the Philadelphia Society for Promotion of A griculture. The first formal farmer cooperatives were created in 1810 a dairy cooperative in Goshen, Connecticut, and a cheese manufacturing cooperative in South Trenton, New Jersey. On the heels of these organizations, other cooperatives involving different commodities were formed in many parts of the country (table 3. 1). There was no identified coordinated leadership and most cooperatives restricted their operations to their local community. Most of he early agricultural cooperatives were ultimately unsuccessful. THE 21ST CENTURY 15 Table 3. 1. Selected early cooperatives and mutuals in the United States Year Cooperative 1752 Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) 1810 Dairy cooperative (Goshen, Conneticut) and cheese cooperative (South Trenton, New Jersey) 1820 Hog marketing, slaughtering, and packing cooperative (Granville, Ohio) 1853 Irrigation cooperative (Tulare County, California) 1857 Grain elevator (Madison , Wisconsin) 1862 Tobacco marketing cooperative (Connecticut) 1863